| Era | 12th century onwards |
| Main driver | Advancements in finance and engineering |
| Expansion factors | Expanding trade networks • Improved agricultural techniques • Technological innovations (e.g. astrolabe, shipbuilding) |
| Impacts on society | Regional variations • Resource depletion • Environmental sustainability • Income inequality |
| Significant groups | City-states • Trading leagues • Hanseatic League |
| Historical implications | Global commerce domination • Cultural development • Political transformation |
